🛕 Indian History · Topic 7 of 9
Start with the study notes on Post-Mauryan Age (definitions, examples and a quick revision), then work through 60 practice questions, each with the correct answer and a clear explanation of why it is right. When you are ready, take this topic as an interactive quiz to test yourself.
Topic overview
After the Mauryas, India was divided among Indian and foreign rulers. Yet it was a time of thriving trade, fine coins and great art.
Indo-Greeks → Sakas → Parthians → Kushanas
The Indo-Greeks were the first in India to issue coins with the king's portrait and name, and they helped shape Gandhara art.
Examples:
The Sakas ruled through governors called Kshatrapas.
Example: Rudradaman I's Junagadh inscription is the first long inscription in pure Sanskrit. It records his repair of the Sudarshana Lake.
The Parthians (Pahlavas) ruled briefly. Their best-known king was Gondophernes.
The Kushanas built a vast empire from Central Asia to the Ganga plains, along the Silk Road.
The first images of the Buddha in human form were made in this age. Before this, he was shown only by symbols.
The Satavahanas ruled the Deccan for over four centuries, linking north and south. Their founder was Simuka.
Example: The Buddhist caves at Karle and Nasik, and the Amaravati stupa, belong to this period.
The Sangam Age (c. 3rd century BCE – 3rd century CE) is known from Sangam literature, composed in poets' assemblies at Madurai under the Pandyas.
India sent spices (especially pepper), fine cotton, gems and ivory to Rome, and received gold coins, wine and glass.
Examples:
| Misconception | Correct understanding |
|---|---|
| India was a single empire after the Mauryas. | It was divided among Shungas, Satavahanas, foreign rulers and Tamil kingdoms. |
| The Buddha was always shown in human form. | Human images first appeared in this age, in the Gandhara and Mathura schools. |
| The Saka Era and Vikram Samvat start in the same year. | The Vikram Samvat begins in 57 BCE; the Saka Era begins in 78 CE. |
| Satavahana kings traced descent through their mothers. | They used mothers' names (metronymics), but succession passed from father to son. |
| Gandhara art is purely Indian. | It blends Greek-Roman style with Buddhist subjects. |
Who founded the Shunga dynasty?
Pushyamitra Shunga.
Which Indo-Greek king became a Buddhist?
Menander (Milinda).
Which inscription is the first long one in pure Sanskrit?
Rudradaman I's Junagadh inscription.
Which era did Kanishka start?
The Saka Era, in 78 CE.
Name the three art schools and their stone.
Gandhara (grey schist), Mathura (red sandstone), Amaravati (white marble).
Who was the greatest Satavahana ruler?
Gautamiputra Satakarni.
What were the emblems of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas?
Bow, tiger and fish.
Who wrote the Tirukkural?
Thiruvalluvar.
Key takeaway: After the Mauryas, India split into many kingdoms, but trade with Rome and along the Silk Road, the first Buddha images and Tamil Sangam literature made it a rich age.
Notes written by Velnov for students and exam aspirants, following the topics of the NCERT ancient Indian history syllabus. Dates marked c. (circa) are approximate.
Q1. medium
The dynasty that succeeded the Mauryas in Magadha was the:
Answer: A — Shunga dynasty
The Shunga dynasty (c. 185-73 BCE), founded by Pushyamitra Shunga after killing the last Maurya, ruled Magadha and parts of central India, with its capital at Pataliputra (later Vidisha).
Q4. medium
The great grammarian Patanjali, author of the 'Mahabhashya', lived during the reign of which dynasty?
Answer: A — The Shungas (he is associated with Pushyamitra)
Patanjali, who wrote the Mahabhashya (a commentary on Panini's grammar), lived in the Shunga period and is associated with the court of Pushyamitra Shunga.
Q6. medium
After Alexander's retreat, Greek rulers who established kingdoms in the northwest of India are called the:
Answer: A — Indo-Greeks (Bactrian Greeks)
The Indo-Greeks (or Bactrian Greeks) ruled the northwest from the 2nd century BCE. They were the first to issue gold coins and coins bearing rulers' portraits and names in India.
Q9. medium
The Indo-Greeks are historically important for introducing to India:
Answer: A — The Gandhara school of art and superior gold coinage with king portraits
Indo-Greek influence contributed to the Gandhara school of art (Greco-Buddhist sculpture), the practice of issuing well-struck coins with rulers' names and portraits, and Hellenistic ideas in astronomy and coinage.
Q11. medium
The greatest Saka ruler, known from the Junagadh Rock Inscription (the first long inscription in chaste Sanskrit), was:
Answer: A — Rudradaman I
Rudradaman I (2nd century CE), the Saka ruler of western India, is famous for the Junagadh (Girnar) inscription in polished Sanskrit, which records his repair of the Sudarshana Lake and his achievements.
Q13. medium
The most powerful dynasty of Central Asian origin to rule northern India in the post-Mauryan age was the:
Answer: A — Kushanas
The Kushanas (a branch of the Yuezhi/Yue-chi), rising after the Sakas and Parthians, built a vast empire from Central Asia across the northwest and Gangetic plains. Their greatest king was Kanishka.
Q14. medium
The greatest Kushana emperor, who started the Saka Era in 78 CE, was:
Answer: A — Kanishka
Kanishka I (c. 78-101 CE) was the greatest Kushana ruler. The Saka Era (Shaka Samvat), which begins in 78 CE and is India's official national calendar, is generally believed to have been started by him.
Q17. medium
Kanishka's court was adorned by many scholars. Which of these was associated with him?
Answer: A — Ashvaghosha, Nagarjuna, Vasumitra and the physician Charaka
Kanishka patronised Ashvaghosha (Buddhacharita), Nagarjuna (Madhyamaka philosophy), Vasumitra, and the great physician Charaka (Charaka Samhita) - a golden age of Buddhist scholarship.
Q19. medium
The Gandhara school of art is best described as a blend of:
Answer: A — Greco-Roman (Hellenistic) style and Buddhist subject matter
Gandhara art combined Greco-Roman techniques (realistic drapery, wavy hair, muscular forms) with Buddhist themes, producing the earliest anthropomorphic images of the Buddha in the northwest.
Q21. medium
The most important dynasty of the Deccan in the post-Mauryan period was the:
Answer: A — Satavahanas (Andhras)
The Satavahanas (also called Andhras) ruled the Deccan for over four centuries (c. 1st century BCE onward), bridging north and south India. Their founder was Simuka.
Q23. medium
The greatest Satavahana ruler, who defeated the Saka ruler Nahapana, was:
Answer: A — Gautamiputra Satakarni
Gautamiputra Satakarni (c. 106-130 CE) revived Satavahana power, defeated the Saka ruler Nahapana, and is praised in the Nasik Prashasti inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri.
Q25. medium
The Satavahana king Hala is famous for compiling which anthology of love poems in Prakrit?
Answer: A — Gathasaptasati (Gaha Sattasai)
King Hala compiled the 'Gathasaptasati' (Gaha Sattasai), a celebrated anthology of 700 Prakrit verses on love and rural life - a gem of Prakrit literature.
Q27. medium
The 'Sangam Age' refers to the early classical period of which region of India?
Answer: A — Tamil South India (Tamilakam)
The Sangam Age (roughly 3rd century BCE - 3rd century CE) is the early period of Tamil South India, known from Sangam literature - anthologies produced in assemblies (Sangams) of poets at Madurai.
Q29. medium
The three great kingdoms (the 'crowned kings' or Muvendar) of the Sangam Age were the Cholas, Pandyas and:
Answer: A — Cheras
The three Tamil kingdoms of the Sangam Age were the Cheras (west/Kerala), Cholas (Kaveri delta) and Pandyas (Madurai). Each had its own royal emblem: the Chera bow, Chola tiger and Pandya fish.
Q31. medium
The capital of the Sangam-age Pandya kingdom, famous for the pearl trade, was:
Answer: A — Madurai (with the port of Korkai)
Madurai was the Pandya capital, with Korkai as its chief port (famous for pearls). The Cholas had Uraiyur (capital) and Kaveripattinam/Puhar (port); the Cheras had Vanji (Karur) and the port of Muziris.
Q33. medium
Sangam literature is broadly divided into two categories based on theme: 'Aham' (love/inner life) and:
Answer: A — 'Puram' (war/public life)
Sangam poems are classified as 'Aham' (agam - concerning love and the inner/private world) and 'Puram' (concerning war, heroism, kings and public life) - reflecting the values of early Tamil society.
Q36. medium
The Tamil grammar work 'Tolkappiyam', the oldest surviving Tamil text, deals with:
Answer: A — Tamil grammar and poetics (and gives insights into early Tamil society)
The Tolkappiyam (by Tolkappiyar) is the oldest extant Tamil work, a treatise on Tamil grammar and poetics. It also offers valuable information about early Tamil (Sangam) society and its five landscapes (tinai).
Q38. medium
Roman trade with South India during the Sangam Age is confirmed by the discovery of:
Answer: A — Large hoards of Roman gold and silver coins in South India
Numerous Roman coins found in South India, along with the Greek text 'Periplus of the Erythraean Sea' and Pliny's complaints about gold draining to India, confirm a brisk Indo-Roman trade in spices, gems and textiles.
Q40. medium
The Satavahanas patronised which language for their inscriptions and literature?
Answer: A — Prakrit
The Satavahanas used Prakrit (in the Brahmi script) as their official language. King Hala's Gathasaptasati is in Prakrit, reflecting their promotion of this popular language.
Q42. medium
The Amaravati school of art, known for its marble carvings and stupa, developed under the patronage of the:
Answer: A — Satavahanas (in the Andhra region)
The Amaravati school (Andhra Pradesh, Krishna valley) flourished under the Satavahanas and their successors, using white limestone/marble to carve narrative Buddhist reliefs on the Amaravati Stupa.
Q44. medium
The post-Mauryan period (c. 200 BCE - 300 CE) is best characterised by:
Answer: A — Political fragmentation, foreign invasions, flourishing trade (Silk Road, Roman), and great advances in art
After the Mauryas, India was politically fragmented and saw waves of foreign rulers (Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Kushanas), but it was an age of vibrant trade (Silk Road and Indo-Roman commerce), coinage, urban growth, and remarkable art.
Q46. medium
The earliest surviving stone images of the Buddha in human form were produced by which two schools?
Answer: A — The Gandhara and Mathura schools
Before this period, the Buddha was represented only by symbols (aniconic). The Gandhara and Mathura schools, in the Kushana age, produced the first human images of the Buddha.
Q48. medium
The Saka Era (Shaka Samvat), used as India's national calendar today, begins in which year?
Answer: A — 78 CE
The Saka Era begins in 78 CE (generally attributed to Kanishka) and is India's official civil calendar. The Vikram Samvat (57 BCE) is the other major traditional era.
Q50. medium
The discovery of the monsoon wind pattern (attributed to the Greek sailor Hippalus) boosted trade by:
Answer: A — Enabling faster direct sea voyages between the Red Sea/Arabia and India
Using the monsoon winds (credited to Hippalus, 1st century CE), ships could sail directly across the Arabian Sea rather than hugging the coast, greatly speeding up and expanding Indo-Roman maritime trade.
Q52. medium
The post-Mauryan centuries saw the rise of Bhagavatism (worship of Vishnu-Krishna). Which pillar is key evidence for this?
Answer: A — The Heliodorus (Besnagar/Garuda) Pillar
The Heliodorus Pillar (Besnagar, c. 110 BCE), erected by a Greek devotee of Vasudeva-Vishnu, is important evidence for the early spread of Bhagavatism/Vaishnavism in this period.
Q54. medium
Sangam poems describe five ecological landscapes ('tinai'). This reflects that early Tamil society was:
Answer: A — Closely tied to its geography, with different regions (hills, forest, farmland, coast, desert) shaping ways of life
The five tinais (kurinji-hills, mullai-forest, marudam-farmland, neydal-coast, palai-arid) linked landscapes with moods and livelihoods, showing a society deeply connected to its varied geography.
Q56. medium
The Kushana king Vima Kadphises was a devotee of which deity, as shown on his coins?
Answer: A — Shiva (his coins show Shiva and the bull Nandi)
Vima Kadphises' coins depict Shiva with the bull Nandi and the title 'Maheshvara', showing his devotion to Shaivism - while other Kushanas like Kanishka favoured Buddhism, reflecting religious diversity.
Q58. medium
The Sangam-age economy of the Tamil region was based mainly on:
Answer: A — Agriculture, cattle-rearing, fishing, weaving, and flourishing overseas (Roman) trade
The Sangam economy rested on agriculture (rice in the fertile marudam), cattle-rearing, fishing on the coast, weaving of fine cotton, gem trade, and profitable maritime trade with Rome and Southeast Asia.
Q60. medium
Which dynasty's rule is regarded as a bridge between the Mauryan age and the Gupta age in the Deccan?
Answer: A — The Satavahanas
The Satavahanas, ruling the Deccan for over four centuries after the Mauryas and before the rise of the Guptas and Vakatakas, form the crucial link between north and south and between the Mauryan and Gupta eras.
Q2. hard
Pushyamitra Shunga is traditionally associated with the revival of which religion and the performance of which sacrifice?
Answer: A — Brahmanism / Vedic religion; the Ashvamedha sacrifice
Pushyamitra Shunga revived Brahmanical/Vedic religion and performed two Ashvamedha (horse) sacrifices, reasserting orthodox traditions after the Buddhist-leaning Mauryas.
Q3. hard
The famous Buddhist stupa at Bharhut, with its carved railings, was built/embellished during which period?
Answer: A — The Shunga period
The Bharhut Stupa (Madhya Pradesh) and additions to the Sanchi Stupa railings and gateways belong to the Shunga period - showing Buddhist art flourished even under a Brahmanical dynasty.
Q5. hard
The Shungas were succeeded in Magadha by the short-lived:
Answer: A — Kanva dynasty
The Kanva (Kanvayana) dynasty, founded by Vasudeva Kanva around 73 BCE, replaced the Shungas and ruled Magadha for about 45 years before being overthrown, probably by the Satavahanas.
Q7. hard
The most famous Indo-Greek king, who embraced Buddhism and features in the Buddhist text 'Milindapanho', was:
Answer: A — Menander (Milinda)
Menander (Milinda), with his capital at Sakala (Sialkot), converted to Buddhism through discussions with the monk Nagasena, recorded in the 'Milindapanho' ('Questions of Milinda').
Q8. hard
The Heliodorus Pillar at Besnagar (Vidisha), dedicated to Vasudeva (Vishnu), was set up by a Greek ambassador. This shows:
Answer: A — The adoption of Bhagavatism/Vaishnavism by some Indo-Greeks
Heliodorus, a Greek envoy of King Antialcidas, erected the Besnagar pillar (Garuda pillar) in honour of Vasudeva (Vishnu), describing himself as a 'Bhagavata' - evidence of Greeks adopting Indian Vaishnavism.
Q10. hard
Central Asian people who invaded India after the Indo-Greeks and set up kingdoms (with the Kshatrapa system) were the:
Answer: A — Sakas (Scythians)
The Sakas (Scythians) followed the Indo-Greeks, ruling regions like the northwest and western India through governors called Kshatrapas and Mahakshatrapas. Rudradaman I was their greatest ruler.
Q12. hard
King Vikramaditya, after whom the Vikram Samvat (57 BCE) is said to be named, is traditionally credited with defeating the:
Answer: A — Sakas
The Vikram Samvat era (starting 57 BCE) is traditionally linked to King Vikramaditya of Ujjain, who is said to have defeated the Sakas (hence the title 'Sakari'). The Saka era (78 CE) is linked to Kanishka.
Q15. hard
The capital of Kanishka's Kushana empire was:
Answer: A — Purushapura (Peshawar)
Kanishka's main capital was Purushapura (modern Peshawar). Mathura served as a second capital. The empire linked India with Central Asia along the Silk Road.
Q16. hard
Kanishka was a great patron of Mahayana Buddhism and convened which important Buddhist Council?
Answer: A — The Fourth Buddhist Council (in Kashmir)
Kanishka convened the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir (Kundalvana), presided by Vasumitra with Ashvaghosha, which compiled commentaries and reflected the rise of Mahayana Buddhism.
Q18. hard
The two great schools of art that flourished under the Kushanas were the Gandhara school and the:
Answer: A — Mathura school
Under the Kushanas, the Gandhara school (Greco-Roman influenced, using grey schist) and the indigenous Mathura school (using red sandstone) both flourished, producing among the earliest images of the Buddha.
Q20. hard
The Kushanas were the first Indian rulers to issue large numbers of high-quality coins made of:
Answer: A — Gold (following Roman coin standards)
The Kushanas issued abundant, fine gold coins (influenced by Roman aurei), reflecting flourishing trade along the Silk Road. Vima Kadphises was the first Kushana to issue gold coins.
Q22. hard
The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was:
Answer: A — Simuka
Simuka founded the Satavahana dynasty around the 1st century BCE, after the decline of the Kanvas and Mauryas in the Deccan. Its greatest ruler was Gautamiputra Satakarni.
Q24. hard
The Satavahana rulers used metronymics (names derived from their mothers, like 'Gautamiputra'). This suggests:
Answer: A — The mother's name/lineage held special importance in their society
Satavahana kings often took metronymics (Gautami-putra = 'son of Gautami', Vasishthi-putra), indicating the importance given to the mother's name/lineage, though succession itself was patrilineal.
Q26. hard
The Satavahanas made important land grants to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks, which were exempt from taxes. Such tax-free villages were called:
Answer: A — Agrahara / Brahmadeya grants (with fiscal and administrative immunities)
The Satavahanas were among the first to grant tax-free land (agrahara to Brahmanas, and grants to Buddhist sanghas) with fiscal and administrative immunities - a practice that grew in later centuries.
Q28. hard
The Sangam literature was produced in assemblies of poets held under the patronage of the:
Answer: A — Pandya kings (at Madurai)
Tradition holds that three Sangams (literary academies) were held under Pandya royal patronage at Madurai. Most surviving Sangam works come from the 'third Sangam'.
Q30. hard
The royal emblems of the three Sangam kingdoms were the tiger (Cholas), the fish (Pandyas), and the ____ (Cheras):
Answer: A — Bow
The Chola emblem was the tiger, the Pandya was the fish (carp), and the Chera was the bow. These emblems appear in Sangam poems and later inscriptions.
Q32. hard
The Sangam-age port of Muziris (Muchiri), a hub of Roman trade on the west coast, belonged to the:
Answer: A — Cheras
Muziris, on the Chera (Kerala) coast, was a major port in the flourishing Indo-Roman trade, exporting spices (especially pepper). Roman gold coins have been found in South India as evidence of this trade.
Q34. hard
The greatest work of Tamil literature, the 'Tirukkural' by Thiruvalluvar, deals with:
Answer: A — Ethics, polity and love (aram, porul, inbam)
The Tirukkural (Kural) by Thiruvalluvar is a revered Tamil classic of couplets on virtue (aram/dharma), wealth/polity (porul/artha) and love (inbam/kama). It is sometimes called the 'Tamil Veda'.
Q35. hard
The two great Tamil epics of the post-Sangam period are Silappadikaram and:
Answer: A — Manimekalai
Silappadikaram ('the tale of the anklet', by Ilango Adigal) and Manimekalai (by Sattanar) are the twin Tamil epics. Silappadikaram tells the story of Kannagi and Kovalan.
Q37. hard
The Sangam-age Chola king Karikala is famous for:
Answer: A — The Battle of Venni and building the Kallanai (Grand Anicut) dam on the Kaveri
Karikala Chola, the most famous Sangam Chola, won the Battle of Venni, promoted agriculture, and is credited with building the Kallanai (Grand Anicut) - one of the oldest water-diversion dams still in use.
Q39. hard
The Greek text describing ports and trade of the Indian coast in the 1st century CE is the:
Answer: A — Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
The 'Periplus of the Erythraean Sea', written by an anonymous Greek sailor-merchant, is a first-hand guide to the ports, goods and trade of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean - a key source for Indo-Roman commerce.
Q41. hard
The Nasik and Karle caves (Buddhist rock-cut chaityas and viharas) were largely patronised by the:
Answer: A — Satavahanas (and local merchants)
The magnificent Buddhist rock-cut caves at Nasik, Karle, Bhaja and Kanheri in the western Deccan were carved during the Satavahana period, funded by kings, guilds and merchants who profited from trade.
Q43. hard
Which three schools of ancient Indian sculpture are correctly matched with their materials?
Answer: A — Gandhara - grey schist; Mathura - red sandstone; Amaravati - white marble/limestone
Gandhara used grey/blue schist (Greco-Roman style), Mathura used spotted red sandstone (indigenous style), and Amaravati used white marble/limestone - three distinct post-Mauryan art traditions.
Q45. hard
The 'Kshatrapa' system of governors used by the Sakas and Kushanas was borrowed from which tradition?
Answer: A — The Persian (Achaemenid) satrapy system
The Kshatrapa (satrap) system of provincial governors, used by the Sakas (as Kshatrapas and Mahakshatrapas) and Kushanas, derived from the Persian Achaemenid administrative tradition of satrapies.
Q47. hard
Which foreign dynasty ruled briefly between the Sakas and Kushanas in the northwest?
Answer: A — The Parthians (Pahlavas)
The Parthians (Pahlavas), of Iranian origin, ruled parts of the northwest briefly between the Sakas and Kushanas. King Gondophernes is the best-known Parthian ruler in India (linked in legend with St. Thomas).
Q49. hard
Which statement about Indo-Roman trade during this age is correct?
Answer: A — India exported spices, textiles, gems and ivory, and imported gold, wine and glassware, creating a trade surplus for India
India exported pepper and other spices, fine cotton textiles, precious stones, ivory and pearls, while importing Roman gold coins, wine, glass and pottery. The Roman writer Pliny lamented the drain of Roman gold to India.
Q51. hard
The Satavahana society is described as being organised around a fourfold division of classes ('varna'), but with an important feature. This feature was:
Answer: A — The rise of artisan and merchant guilds (shrenis) that even acted as bankers
Satavahana society had a varna hierarchy but also saw the rise of powerful artisan and merchant guilds (shrenis) that regulated crafts and trade and even functioned as bankers, receiving deposits - reflecting economic prosperity.
Q53. hard
Which of the following correctly orders these dynasties/peoples chronologically in the northwest (earliest first)?
Answer: A — Indo-Greeks → Sakas → Parthians → Kushanas
The northwest saw successive foreign rulers in the order: Indo-Greeks (Bactrian) → Sakas (Scythians) → Parthians (Pahlavas) → Kushanas - each wave following the previous from Central Asia.
Q55. hard
The overall importance of the post-Mauryan age for Indian culture lies in:
Answer: A — The flowering of art (first Buddha images), long-distance trade, coinage, and rich Tamil and Prakrit literature
Despite political fragmentation, the post-Mauryan age was culturally rich: the first Buddha images (Gandhara/Mathura), thriving Silk Road and Roman trade, fine gold coinage, and classical Tamil (Sangam) and Prakrit literature.
Q57. hard
The Nasik Prashasti (inscription) of Gautami Balashri praises her son Gautamiputra Satakarni as one who:
Answer: A — Destroyed the Sakas, Yavanas (Greeks) and Pahlavas and upheld the varna order
The Nasik Prashasti of Gautami Balashri glorifies Gautamiputra Satakarni as the destroyer of the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas, a protector of the varna system, and a unique Brahmana - a key Satavahana record.
Q59. hard
The term 'Yavana' in Indian texts of this period generally referred to:
Answer: A — The Greeks (and later, other Westerners)
'Yavana' (from 'Ionian') originally meant the Greeks. In Sangam and other texts it referred to Greeks and, more broadly, to Western/Roman traders who visited Indian ports.